Heterologous UTR Sequences for Enhanced mRNA Expression

ABSTRACT

mRNAs containing an exogenous open reading frame (ORF) flanked by a 5′ untranslated region (UTR) and a 3′ UTR is provided, wherein the 5′ and 3′ UTRs are derived from a naturally abundant mRNA in a tissue. Also provided are methods for identifying the 5′ and 3′ UTRs, and methods for making and using the mRNAs.

BACKGROUND

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is frequently used as a gene delivery molecule inthe field of cancer immunotherapy and stem cell-based biomedicalresearch as an alternative to plasmid DNA. As a direct source of geneproducts, mRNA has several advantages including a lack of requirementfor nuclear entry, which poses a significant barrier to DNA delivery,especially in non-dividing cells. mRNA also has a negligible chance ofintegrating into the host genome, avoiding aberrant transcription andexpression of oncogenes caused by insertional mutagenesis.

For a given gene, the untranslated gene regions (UTRs), including the 5′and 3′ UTRs, are regions involved in the regulation of expression. The5′ UTR is a regulatory region of DNA situated at the 5′ end of allprotein coding sequence that is transcribed into mRNA but not translatedinto protein. 5′ UTRs may contain various regulatory elements, e.g., 5′cap structure, G-quadruplex structure (G4), stem-loop structure, andinternal ribosome entry sites (IRES), which play a major role in thecontrol of translation initiation. The 3′ UTR, situated downstream ofthe protein coding sequence, has been found to be involved in numerousregulatory processes including transcript cleavage, stability andpolyadenylation, translation, and mRNA localization. The 3′ UTR servesas a binding site for numerous regulatory proteins and small non-codingRNAs, e.g., microRNAs.

Current mRNA therapies typically rely on native or standard UTRsequences that are often not tissue-specific and/or give low levels ofprotein expression. There is a need to identify novel UTRs that canstabilize therapeutic mRNA and increase protein synthesis in atissue-specific manner.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure relates to methods of improving expression froman mRNA in a tissue (e.g., liver, or cells in vitro, such as stem cells,hepatocytes or lymphocytes), and heterologous untranslated region (UTR)sequences for enhancing protein synthesis from therapeutic mRNAs(including those UTRs that act in a tissue-specific manner), methods ofidentifying the same, and methods of using the same as therapeuticagents. Sequence elements provided herein include, for example, UTRsderived from mRNAs that are naturally abundant in a specific tissue(e.g., liver), to which the therapeutic mRNA's expression is targeted.

UTR sequences of the present disclosure may, for example, increaseprotein synthesis by increasing both the time that the mRNA remains intranslating polysomes (message stability) and/or the rate at whichribosomes initiate translation on the message (message translationefficiency). Thus, UTR sequences of the present disclosure lead toprolonged protein synthesis, enabling successful treatment of conditionsthat require continuous protein expression in a tissue-specific manner.

Described herein are mRNAs comprising an exogenous open reading frame(ORF) flanked by a 5′ UTR and a 3′ UTR, wherein the 5′ UTR and the 3′UTR are derived from a naturally abundant mRNA in a tissue. The tissuemay be, for example, liver, a stem cell or lymphoid tissue. The lymphoidtissue may be, for example, a lymphocyte (e.g., a B-lymphocyte, a helperT-lymphocyte, a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte, a regulatory T-lymphocyte, or anatural killer cell), a macrophage, a monocyte, a dendritic cell, aneutrophil, an eosinophil or a reticulocyte. The naturally abundant mRNAmay have, for example, a tissue half-life of at least about 9 hours, orfrom about 5 to about 60 hours. The naturally abundant mRNA may be, forexample, transcribed from HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA, SERPINA1 orSERPINA3 gene. The 5′ UTR may have, for example, the nucleotide sequenceof SEQ ID NOS: 1-6, 9 or 10. The exogenous ORF may be, for example, areporter gene or a therapeutic gene. The therapeutic gene may be, forexample, interferon alpha, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand,vascular adhesion protein 1, or hepatocyte growth factor. The mRNA mayinclude, for example, at least one non-natural or modified nucleotide.The at least one non-natural or modified nucleotide may include, forexample, at least one backbone modification, sugar modification or basemodification. The at least one non-natural or modified nucleotide mayinclude, for example, at least one base modification. The at least onebase modification, for example, may be selected from the groupconsisting of 2-amino-6-chloropurine riboside 5′-triphosphate,2-aminoadenosine 5′-triphosphate, 2-thiocytidine 5′-triphosphate,2-thiouridine 5′-triphosphate, 4-thiouridine 5′-triphosphate,5-aminoallylcytidine 5′-triphosphate, 5-aminoallyluridine5′-triphosphate, 5-bromocytidine 5′-triphosphate, 5-bromouridine5′-triphosphate, 5-iodocytidine 5′-triphosphate, 5-iodouridine5′-triphosphate, 5-methylcytidine 5′-triphosphate, 5-methyluridine5′-triphosphate, 6-azacytidine 5′-triphosphate, 6-azauridine5′-triphosphate, 6-chloropurine riboside 5′-triphosphate,7-deazaadenosine 5′-triphosphate, 7-deazaguanosine 5′-triphosphate,8-azaadenosine 5′-triphosphate, 8-azidoadenosine 5′-triphosphate,benzimidazole riboside 5′-triphosphate, N1-methyladenosine5′-triphosphate, N1-methylguanosine 5′-triphosphate, N6-methyladenosine5′-triphosphate, O⁶-methylguanosine 5′-triphosphate,N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′-triphosphate, puromycin 5′-triphosphate andxanthosine 5′-triphosphate. The at least one non-natural or modifiednucleotide may, for example, be N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′-triphosphate.

Described herein are methods of identifying a 5′ UTR and a 3′ UTR forincreasing protein synthesis in a desired tissue or a cell derived fromthe desired tissue, comprising a) isolating a plurality of 5′ UTRs and aplurality of 3′ UTRs from mRNAs that are naturally abundant in thedesired tissue; b) generating a library of test constructs, eachcomprising a reporter ORF flanked by one of the plurality of 5′ UTRsand/or one of the plurality of 3′ UTRs; c) providing a referenceconstruct comprising the reporter ORF flanked by reference 5′ and 3′UTRs; d) expressing each of the test constructs and the referenceconstruct in the tissue; e) measuring the protein expression of thereporter ORF from the each of the test constructs and the referenceconstruct; f) selecting at least one test construct having a higherprotein expression from the reporter ORF than the reference construct;and g)identifying the 5′ UTR and the 3′ UTR of the selected testconstruct. In a particular embodiment, the desired tissue is liver. In aparticular embodiment, an mRNA comprising an identified 5′ UTR or 3′ UTRhas a tissue half-life of at least 4 hours. In a particular embodiment,the reporter ORF is eGFP, adiponectin or Factor VII.

Described herein are methods treating a liver condition, comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof the mRNA as described herein.In a particular embodiment, the liver condition is selected from thegroup consisting of: acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, livercirrhosis, cirrhosis, fatty liver, liver cancer, glycogen storagedisease, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 1 (PFIC1),progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 2 (PFIC2), progressivefamilial intrahepatic cholestasis 3 (PFIC3), adenylosuccinate lyasedeficiency (ASLD), citrullinemia, arginase-1 deficiency, primaryhyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1), ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency(OTCD), homocystinuria, pheylketonuria, glycogen storage disease type IV(GSDIV), galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase deficiency (type I(GALTI), type II (GALTII) or type 3 (GALTIII)), long chain3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (LCHADD),3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency (MCCC1 deficiency),methylmalonic aciduria (MMA), MMA and homocystinuria type C (MMACHC),thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP),hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria syndrome (HHH),complement component 2 deficiency (C2D), F2, protein S deficiency(caused by allelic variants of PROS1), alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency(A1AT), glutaric academia 1 (GA-1), glutaric academia 2 (GA-2),cystinosis (CTNS), tyrosinemia, tyrosinemia type 3 (cause by allelicvariants of HPD), D-bifunctional protein deficiency (DBP),Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (FBS), pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), primarybiliary cirrhosis, Pompe disease, glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD),proprionic acidemia (PA) and Crigler-Najjar syndrome (CN1). In aparticular embodiment, the liver condition is hepatitis C. In aparticular embodiment, the therapeutic gene is selected from the groupconsisting of: interferon alpha, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand,vascular adhesion protein 1, hepatocyte growth factor, G6PC, ABCB11,ABCB4, ASL1, ASS, Arg1, AGXT, OTC, CBS, PAH, GBE, GALE, HADH, MCCC1,MMA, ADAMTS13, SLC25A15, C2, F2, PROS1, SERPINA1, GALT1, ETFA, GCDH,CTNS, FAH, TAT, HPD, HSD17b4, SLC2A2, GALC, ABCC6, AHSG, PDC-E2, GAA,ATP8B1, MMACHC, GK, PCCA, PCCB and UGT1A1.

Described herein are methods of improving expression of a protein in adesired cell or desired tissue, comprising providing an mRNA to saidcell or tissue, wherein the mRNA comprises an open reading frame (ORF)that encodes said protein, flanked by a heterologous 5′ untranslatedregion (UTR) and/or a heterologous 3′ UTR, wherein the 5′ UTR and/or the3′ UTR are derived from an mRNA that is naturally abundant mRNA in thedesired tissue or tissues from which the desired cell was derived. In aparticular embodiment, the mRNA comprises at least one modified ornon-naturally occurring nucleotide. In a particular embodiment, the atleast one modified or non-naturally occurring nucleotide comprises atleast one backbone modification, sugar modification or basemodification. In a particular embodiment, the at least one modified ornon-naturally occurring nucleotide comprises at least one basemodification. In a particular embodiment, the at least one basemodification is selected from the group consisting of:2-amino-6-chloropurine riboside 5′ triphosphate, 2-aminoadenosine 5′triphosphate, 2-thiocytidine 5′ triphosphate, 2-thiouridine 5′triphosphate, 4-thiouridine 5′ triphosphate, 5-aminoallylcytidine 5′triphosphate, 5-aminoallyluridine 5′ triphosphate, 5-bromocytidine 5′triphosphate, 5-bromouridine 5′ triphosphate, 5-iodocytidine 5′triphosphate, 5-iodouridine 5′ triphosphate, 5-methylcytidine 5′triphosphate, 5-methyluridine 5′ triphosphate, 6-azacytidine 5′triphosphate, 6-azauridine 5′ triphosphate, 6-chloropurine riboside5′-triphosphate, 7-deazaadenosine 5′ triphosphate, 7-deazaguanosine 5′triphosphate, 8-azaadenosine 5′ triphosphate, 8-azidoadenosine 5′triphosphate, benzimidazole riboside 5′ triphosphate, N¹-methyladenosine5′ triphosphate, N¹-methylguanosine 5′ triphosphate, N⁶-methyladenosine5′ triphosphate, O⁶-methylguanosine 5′ triphosphate,N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′ triphosphate, puromycin 5′-triphosphate andxanthosine 5′ triphosphate. In a particular embodiment, the at least onemodified or non-naturally occurring nucleotide isN¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5-triphosphate. In a particular embodiment, thetissue is liver. In a particular embodiment, the mRNA has a half-life ofat least 40 hours. In a particular embodiment, the heterologous 5′ UTRand/or the heterologous 3′ UTR is derived from a gene selected from thegroup consisting of: HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA, Col1A, Col6A, SERPINA1and SERPINA3. In a particular embodiment, the 5′ UTR comprises anucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NOS:1-6, 9 and 10. In a particular embodiment, the ORF is a reporter gene ora therapeutic gene of interest. In a particular embodiment, thetherapeutic gene is selected from the group consisting of: interferonalpha, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, vascular adhesion protein1, hepatocyte growth factor, G6PC, ABCB11, ABCB4, ASL1, ASS, Arg1, AGXT,OTC, CBS, PAH, GBE, GALE, HADH, MCCC1, MMA, ADAMTS13, SLC25A15, C2, F2,PROS1, SERPINA1, GALT1, ETFA, GCDH, CTNS, FAH, TAT, HPD, HSD17b4,SLC2A2, GALC, ABCC6, AHSG, PDC-E2, GAA, ATP8B1, MMACHC, GK, PCCA, PCCBand UGT1A1.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows degradation process of formulated mRNA after delivery intoa cell. After formulated mRNA is delivered and endocytosed into a cell,ribosomes bind to mRNA to form polysomal mRNA for active translation,followed by mRNA degradation.

FIG. 2 shows major paths for mRNA degradation. Nearly all major mRNAdecay pathways characterized in eukaryotes are initiated bydeadenylation by deadenylases. Deadenylation primarily leads todecapping at the 5′ end with subsequent 5′ to 3′ exonucleolyticdigestion of the RNA body by 5′ exonucleases (5′ exo). Alternatively,when the 5′ to 3′ decay pathway is compromised, after deadenylation, themRNA body can be degraded from the 3′ end by a large complex called anexosome.

FIG. 3 shows a wide range of stabilities of endogenous mRNAs. Byincreasing the upper limit of mRNA half-life, the quantity of proteindelivered may be dramatically increased.

FIG. 4 shows construction of a combinatorial library of UTRs with areporter as described herein. The method involves identifying mRNAslikely to be stable in liver, synthesizing UTRs of these mRNA sequences,and building combinatorial library of UTRs flanking a reporter gene,e.g., enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP) or any other suitablereporter gene.

FIG. 5 shows selection of UTRs based on liver abundance (contrasted withabundance in other tissues, e.g., heart). mRNAs for the genesHaptoglobin (HP), Haptoglobin-Related Protein (HPR), Albumin (ALB),Complement Component 3 (C3), Alpha-1-antitrypsin (SERPINA1),Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin (SERPINA3), Fibrinogen Alpha Chain (FGA), andFibrinogen Beta Chain (FGB) are naturally highly abundant in liver ascompared with their prevalence in heart.

FIG. 6 shows that modified RNAs having hepatocyte 5′ UTRs out-performedmodified RNAs having synthetic or non-hepatic UTRs. modRNAs havinghepatocyte 5′ UTRs derived from HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA, SERPINA1 andSERPINA3 genes produced more eGFP than synthetic and non-hepatic (Col1Aand Col6A) UTRs in primary hepatocytes after transfection.

FIG. 7 shows that modified mRNA out-performed native mRNAs for allconstructs. eGFP synthesis was reduced for all mRNAs containing onlynatural nucleotides, as compared with modRNAs (compare with FIG. 6 ).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are methods of improving expression from an mRNA, e.g.,in a tissue-specific manner (e.g., liver, or cells in vitro, such asstem cells or lymphocytes), untranslated region (UTR) sequences forenhancing protein synthesis from mRNAs of interest, such as, forexample, therapeutic mRNAs, methods of identifying the same, and methodsof using the same as therapeutic agents. UTRs are described, forexample, to increase translation and mRNA stability. Globin 5′- and3′-UTRs, for example, were used to improve translation and mRNAstability of heterologous mRNA and of in vitro transcribed mRNA forimmune therapy (Zhao, Y et al., Cancer Res., 70:9053-61, 2010; Kreiter,S. et al., Cancer Res., 70:9031-40, 2010). The 5′-UTR of tobacco etchvirus (TEV) was also shown to enhance translation of in vitrotranscribed mRNA in mammalian cells and was used to expresserythropoietin in mice.

It is to be understood that the disclosure is not limited to theparticular embodiments of the present disclosure described below, asvariations of the particular embodiments may be made and still fallwithin the scope of the appended claims. It is also to be understoodthat the terminology employed is for the purpose of describingparticular embodiments, and is not intended to be limiting.

As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include pluralreference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless definedotherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the samemeaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art towhich this disclosure belongs.

The term “functionally linked” or “operably linked” means in thiscontext the sequential and function arrangement between a 5′ UTR, openreading frame (ORF), and 3′ UTR according to the present disclosure,wherein at least the 5′ UTR modulates translation of said ORF.

The number of molecules of mRNA that can be delivered in a singletherapeutic dose is limited by the toxicity of the delivery vehicle. Formany diseases of interest, a high level of protein synthesis is requiredfrom each dose of mRNA to achieve a therapeutic effect. In some cases,currently available technology is unable to safely produce this highlevel of synthesis. Thus, achieving a therapeutic effect requiresreducing the dose volume.

Disclosed herein are compositions and methods for increasing proteinsynthesis by increasing both the time that the mRNA remains intranslating polysomes (message stability) and the rate at whichribosomes initiate translation on the message (message translationefficiency).

RNA is notoriously unstable. Rapid degradation of mRNA presents a majorchallenge to current therapeutic paradigms. Chronic mRNA dosing may berequired to produce enough protein activity to adequately address thecondition being treated. If a therapeutic mRNA is rapidly degradedfollowing delivery, the result will be only a brief pulse of proteinproduction. An extremely frequent dosing schedule would be necessary toachieve continuous protein expression from this rapidly degraded mRNA.But such a schedule would pose significant toxicity, compliance andefficacy challenges that may limit therapeutic efficacy. Reducing dosefrequency, therefore, is desirable for improving therapeutic efficacy.

Endogenous mRNAs show a wide range of stabilities. The most stableendogenous mRNAs have half-lives of from 40 to 60 hours (Schwanhausser,B. et al., Nature, 473:337-42, 2011), as indicated by the arrow in FIG.3 . By increasing the upper limit of mRNA half-life, the quantity ofprotein delivered may be dramatically increased.

RNA stability may also be increased in a tissue-specific manner. Everytissue comprises a set of core genes that are active in for each tissue(Ramsköld, D. et al., PLOS Comput. Biol., 5:e1000598, 2009). Thetissue-specific mRNAs from such core genes accounts for the majority ofall RNA molecules (transcriptome) in each tissue. For example, the tenmost abundantly expressed genes in mouse liver represent 25% of allmRNAs in that tissue. These observations suggest that enhanced RNAstability contributes to abundance of these mRNAs in liver.

As noted above, UTR sequences can modulate mRNA stability through avariety of mechanisms, including mRNA binding proteins, miRNA, andsecondary structures, which directly inhibit nucleolytic degradation.Molecular engineering has, in some instances, led to a 100× improvementin protein synthesis, a major component of which is altering UTRsequences (Thess, A. et al., Mol. Ther., 23:1456-64, 2015).

The present disclosure improves upon current technology to enhanceexpression from an mRNA construct, e.g., by decreasing the rate of mRNAdegradation to increase both the duration and the magnitude of proteinsynthesis produced from an mRNA dose, especially in a tissue-specificmanner. The mRNA described herein can contain, for example, a hybridsequence, which may comprise an open reading frame (ORF) for a targetpolypeptide of interest coupled (upstream of the target of interest) toa heterologous, e.g., a tissue-specific, UTR derived from anothernaturally occurring or engineered gene (e.g., a human gene or anengineered UTR from a human gene). The mRNA construct(s) describedherein can optionally comprise, for example, a poly-adenosine region(poly-A tail) downstream of the target of the ORF.

The mRNA(s) described herein can comprise naturally occurringribonucleosides or chemically modified ribonucleosides, i.e., modifiedmRNAs (modRNAs). modRNAs can be prepared as described in, for example,U.S. Pat. No. 8,278,036 (incorporated herein by reference), to includeone or more pseudouridine residues, for example. Uridine and cytidine,for example, can be replaced with 2-thiouridine and/or 5-methylcytidineto increase stability of the mRNA.

The described mRNA can comprise at least one structural or chemicalmodification. The nucleoside that is modified in the mRNA, for example,can be a uridine (U), a cytidine (C), an adenine (A), or guanine (G).The modified nucleoside can be, for example, m⁵C (5-methylcytidine), m⁶A(N⁶-methyladenosine), s²U (2-thiouridien), (pseudouridine) or Um(2-O-methyluridine). Some exemplary chemical modifications ofnucleosides in the mRNA molecule further include, for example,pyridine-4-one ribonucleoside, 5-aza-uridine, 2-thio-5-aza uridine,2-thiouridine, 4-thio pseudouridine, 2-thio pseudouridine,5-hydroxyuridine, 3-methyluridine, 5-carboxymethyl uridine,1-carboxymethyl pseudouridine, 5-propynyl uridine, 1-propynylpseudouridine, 5-taurinomethyluridine, 1-taurinomethyl pseudouridine,5-taurinomethyl-2-thio uridine, 1-taurinomethyl-4-thio uridine, 5-methyluridine, 1-methyl pseudouridine, 4-thio-1-methyl pseudouridine,2-thio-1-methyl pseudouridine, 1-methyl-1-deaza pseudouridine,2-thio-1-methyl-1-deaza pseudouridine, dihydrouridine,dihydropseudouridine, 2-thio dihydrouridine, 2-thiodihydropseudouridine, 2-methoxyuridine, 2-methoxy-4-thio uridine,4-methoxy pseudouridine, 4-methoxy-2-thio pseudouridine, 5-aza cytidine,pseudoisocytidine, 3-methyl cytidine, N4-acetylcytidine,5-formylcytidine, N4-methylcytidine, 5-hydroxymethylcytidine, 1-methylpseudoisocytidine, pyrrolo-cytidine, pyrrolo-pseudoisocytidine, 2-thiocytidine, 2-thio-5-methyl cytidine, 4-thio pseudoisocytidine,4-thio-1-methyl pseudoisocytidine, 4-thio-1-methyl-1-deazapseudoisocytidine, 1-methyl-1-deaza pseudoisocytidine, zebularine, 5-azazebularine, 5-methyl zebularine, 5-aza-2-thio zebularine, 2-thiozebularine, 2-methoxy cytidine, 2-methoxy-5-methyl cytidine, 4-methoxypseudoisocytidine, 4-methoxy-1-methyl pseudoisocytidine, 2-aminopurine,2,6-diaminopurine, 7-deaza adenine, 7-deaza-8-aza adenine,7-deaza-2-aminopurine, 7-deaza-8-aza-2-aminopurine,7-deaza-2,6-diaminopurine, 7-deaza-8-aza-2,6-diaminopurine,1-methyladenosine, N⁶-methyladenosine, N⁶-isopentenyladenosine,N⁶-(cis-hydroxyisopentenyl) adenosine,2-methylthio-N⁶-(cis-hydroxyisopentenyl) adenosine,N⁶-glycinylcarbamoyladenosine, N⁶-threonylcarbamoyladenosine,2-methylthio-N⁶-threonyl carbamoyladenosine, N⁶,N⁶-dimethyladenosine,7-methyladenine, 2-methylthio adenine, 2-methoxy adenine, inosine,1-methyl inosine, wyosine, wybutosine, 7-deaza guanosine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanosine, 6-thio guanosine, 6-thio-7-deaza guanosine,6-thio-7-deaza-8-aza guanosine, 7-methyl guanosine, 6-thio-7-methylguanosine, 7-methylinosine, 6-methoxy guanosine, 1-methylguanosine,N²-methylguanosine, N²,N²-dimethylguanosine, 8-oxo guanosine,7-methyl-8-oxo guanosine, 1-methyl-6-thio guanosine, N²-methyl-6-thioguanosine, and N²,N²-dimethyl-6-thio guanosine. In another embodiment,the modifications are independently selected from the group consistingof 5-methylcytosine, pseudouridine and 1-methylpseudouridine.

In some embodiments, the modified nucleobase in the mRNA molecule is amodified uracil including, for example, pseudouridine (ψ),pyridine-4-one ribonucleoside, 5-aza uridine, 6-aza uridine,2-thio-5-aza uridine, 2-thio uridine (s2U), 4-thio uridine (s4U), 4-thiopseudouridine, 2-thio pseudouridine, 5-hydroxy uridine (ho⁵U),5-aminoallyl uridine, 5-halo uridine (e.g., 5-iodom uridine or 5-bromouridine), 3-methyl uridine (m³U), 5-methoxy uridine (mo⁵U), uridine5-oxyacetic acid (cmo⁵U), uridine 5-oxyacetic acid methyl ester(mcmo⁵U), 5-carboxymethyl uridine (cm⁵U), 1-carboxymethyl pseudouridine,5-carboxyhydroxymethyl uridine (chm⁵U), 5-carboxyhydroxym ethyl uridinemethyl ester (mchm⁵U), 5-methoxycarbonylmethyl uridine (mcm⁵U),5-methoxycarbonylmethyl-2-thio uridine (mcm⁵s2U), 5-aminomethyl-2-thiouridine (nm⁵s2U), 5-methylaminomethyl uridine (mnm⁵U),5-methylaminomethyl-2-thio uridine (mnm⁵s2U),5-methylaminomethyl-2-seleno uridine (mnm⁵se²U), 5-carbamoylmethyluridine (ncm⁵U), 5-carboxymethylaminomethyl uridine (cmnm⁵U),5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2-thio uridine (cmnm⁵s2U), 5-propynyluridine, 1-propynyl pseudouridine, 5-taurinomethyl uridine (Tcm⁵U),1-taurinomethyl pseudouridine, 5-taurinomethyl-2-thio uridine (Tm⁵s2U),1-taurinomethyl-4-thio pseudouridine, 5-methyl uridine (m⁵U, e.g.,having the nucleobase deoxythymine), 1-methyl pseudouridine (m¹ψ),5-methyl-2-thio uridine (m⁵s2U), 1-methyl-4-thio pseudouridine (m¹s⁴ψ)4-thio-1-methyl pseudouridine, 3-methyl pseudouridine (m³ψ),2-thio-1-methyl pseudouridine, 1-methyl-1-deaza pseudouridine,2-thio-1-methyl-1-deaza pseudouridine, dihydrouridine (D),dihydropseudouridine, 5,6-dihydrouridine, 5-methyl dihydrouridine (m⁵D),2-thio dihydrouridine, 2-thio dihydropseudouridine, 2-methoxy uridine,2-methoxy-4-thio uridine, 4-methoxy pseudouridine, 4-methoxy-2-thiopseudouridine, N¹-methyl pseudouridine, 3-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)uridine (acp³U), 1-methyl-3-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl) pseudouridine(acp³ψ), 5-(isopentenylaminomethyl) uridine (inm⁵U),5-(isopentenylaminomethyl)-2-thio uridine (inm⁵s2U), .alpha-thiouridine, 2′-O-methyl uridine (Um), 5,2′-O-dimethyl uridine (m⁵Um),2′-O-methyl pseudouridine 2-thio-2′-O-methyl uridine (s2Um),5-methoxycarbonylmethyl-2′-O-methyl uridine (mcm⁵Um),5-carbamoylmethyl-2′-O-methyl uridine (ncm⁵Um),5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2′-O-methyl uridine (cmnm⁵Um),3,2′-O-dimethyl uridine (m³Um), 5-(isopentenylaminomethyl)-2′-O-methyluridine (inm⁵Um), 1-thio uridine, deoxythymidine, 2′-F-ara uridine, 2′-Furidine, 2′-OH-ara uridine, 5-(2-carbomethoxyvinyl) uridine, and5-[3-(1-E-propenylamino) uridine.

In some embodiments, the modified nucleobase is a modified cytosineincluding, for example, 5-aza cytidine, 6-aza cytidine,pseudoisocytidine, 3-methyl cytidine (m³C), N⁴-acetyl cytidine (act),5-formyl cytidine (f⁵C), N⁴-methyl cytidine (m⁴C), 5-methyl cytidine(m⁵C), 5-halo cytidine (e.g., 5-iodo cytidine), 5-hydroxymethyl cytidine(hm⁵C), 1-methyl pseudoisocytidine, pyrrolo-cytidine,pyrrolo-pseudoisocytidine, 2-thio cytidine (s2C), 2-thio-5-methylcytidine, 4-thio pseudoisocytidine, 4-thio-1-methyl pseudoisocytidine,4-thio-1-methyl-1-deaza pseudoisocytidine, 1-methyl-1-deazapseudoisocytidine, zebularine, 5-aza zebularine, 5-methyl zebularine,5-aza-2-thio zebularine, 2-thio zebularine, 2-methoxy cytidine,2-methoxy-5-methyl cytidine, 4-methoxy pseudoisocytidine,4-methoxy-1-methyl pseudoisocytidine, lysidine (k²C), alpha-thiocytidine, 2′-O-methyl cytidine (Cm), 5,2′-O-dimethyl cytidine (m⁵Cm),N⁴-acetyl-2′-O-methyl cytidine (ac⁴Cm), N⁴,2′-O-dimethyl cytidine(m⁴Cm), 5-formyl-2′-O-methyl cytidine (f⁵Cm), N⁴,N⁴,2′-O-trimethylcytidine (m⁴ ₂Cm), 1-thio cytidine, 2′-F-ara cytidine, 2′-F cytidine,and 2′-OH-ara cytidine.

In some embodiments, the modified nucleobase is a modified adenineincluding, for example, 2-amino purine, 2,6-diamino purine,2-amino-6-halo purine (e.g., 2-amino-6-chloro purine), 6-halo purine(e.g., 6-chloro purine), 2-amino-6-methyl purine, 8-azido adenosine,7-deaza adenine, 7-deaza-8-aza adenine, 7-deaza-2-amino purine,7-deaza-8-aza-2-amino purine, 7-deaza-2,6-diamino purine,7-deaza-8-aza-2,6-diamino purine, 1-methyl adenosine (m¹A), 2-methyladenine (m²A), N⁶-methyl adenosine (m⁶A), 2-methylthio-N⁶-methyladenosine (ms2 m^(6A)), N⁶⁻isopentenyl adenosine (i⁶A),2-methylthio-N⁶-isopentenyl adenosine (ms²i⁶A),N⁶-(cis-hydroxyisopentenyl) adenosine (io⁶A),2-methylthio-N⁶-(cis-hydroxyisopentenyl) adenosine (ms²io⁶A),N⁶-glycinylcarbamoyl adenosine (g⁶A), N⁶-threonylcarbamoyl adenosine(t⁶A), N⁶-methyl-N⁶-threonylcarbamoyl adenosine (m⁶ ₂A),2-methylthio-N⁶-threonylcarbamoyl adenosine (ms²g⁶A), N⁶,N⁶-dimethyladenosine (m⁶ ₂A), N⁶-hydroxynorvalylcarbamoyl adenosine (hn⁶A),2-methylthio-N⁶-hydroxynorvalylcarbamoyl adenosine (ms²hn⁶A), N⁶-acetyladenosine (ac⁶A), 7-methyl adenine, 2-methylthio adenine, 2-methoxyadenine, alpha-thio adenosine, 2′-O-methyl adenosine (Am),N⁶,2′-O-dimethyl adenosine (m⁶Am), N⁶,N⁶,2′-O-trimethyl adenosine (m⁶₂Am), 1,2′-O-dimethyl adenosine (m¹Am), 2′-O-ribosyl adenosine(phosphate) (Ar(p)), 2-amino-N⁶-methyl purine, 1-thio adenosine, 8-azidoadenosine, 2′-F-ara adenosine, 2′-F adenosine, 2′-OH-ara adenosine, andN⁶-(19-amino-pentaoxanonadecyl) adenosine.

In some embodiments, the modified nucleobase is a modified guanineincluding, for example, inosine (I), 1-methyl inosine (m¹I), wyosine(imG), methylwyosine (mimG), 4-demethyl wyosine (imG-14), isowyosine(imG2), wybutosine (yW), peroxywybutosine (o₂yW), hydroxywybutosine(OHyW), undermodified hydroxywybutosine (OHyWy), 7-deaza guanosine,queuosine (Q), epoxyqueuosine (oQ), galactosyl queuosine (galQ),mannosyl queuosine (manQ), 7-cyano-7-deaza guanosine (preQ₀),7-aminomethyl-7-deaza guanosine (preQ₁), archaeosine (G⁺), 7-deaza-8-azaguanosine, 6-thio guanosine, 6-thio-7-deaza guanosine,6-thio-7-deaza-8-aza guanosine, 7-methyl guanosine (m⁷G),6-thio-7-methyl guanosine, 7-methyl inosine, 6-methoxy guanosine,1-methyl guanosine (m¹G), N2-methyl-guanosine (m²G), N²,N²-dimethylguanosine (m² ₂G), N^(2,7)-dimethyl guanosine (^(m2,7G)),N²,N^(2,7)-dimethyl guanosine (m^(2,2,7)G), 8-oxo guanosine,7-methyl-8-oxo guanosine, 1-methio guanosine, N²-methyl-6-thioguanosine, N²,N²-dimethyl-6-thio guanosine, alpha-thio guanosine,2′-O-methyl guanosine (Gm), N²-methyl-2′-O-methyl guanosine (m²Gm),N²,N²-dimethyl-2′-O-methyl guanosine (m² ₂Gm), 1-methyl-2′-O-methylguanosine (m¹Gm), N^(2,7)-dimethyl-2′-O-methyl guanosine (m^(2,7)Gm),2′-O-methyl inosine (Im), 1,2′-O-dimethyl inosine (m¹lm), 2′-O-ribosylguanosine (phosphate) (Gr(p)), 1-thio guanosine, O⁶-methyl guanosine,2′-F-ara guanosine, and 2′-F guanosine.

The nucleobase of the nucleotide can be independently selected from apurine, a pyrimidine, a purine or pyrimidine analog. For example, thenucleobase can each be independently selected from adenine, cytosine,guanine, uracil or hypoxanthine. The nucleobase can also include, forexample, naturally occurring and synthetic derivatives of a base,including, but not limited to, pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidines,5-methylcytosine (5-me-C), 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, xanthine,hypoxanthine, 2-amino adenine, 6-methyl and other alkyl derivatives ofadenine and guanine, 2-propyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine andguanine, 2-thio uracil, 2-thio thymine and 2-thio cytosine, 5-propynyluracil and cytosine, 6-azo uracil, cytosine and thymine, pseudouracil,4-thio uracil, 8-halo (e.g., 8-bromo), 8-amino, 8-thiol, 8-thioalkyl,8-hydroxyl and other 8-substituted adenines and guanines, 5-haloparticularly 5-bromo, 5-trifluoromethyl and other 5-substituted uracilsand cytosines, 7-methyl guanine and 7-methyl adenine, 8-aza guanine and8-aza adenine, deaza guanine, 7-deaza guanine, 3-deaza guanine, deazaadenine, 7-deaza adenine, 3-deaza adenine, pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine,imidazo[1,5-a]1,3,5 triazinones, 9-deaza purines,imidazo[4,5-d]pyrazines, thiazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidines, pyrazine-2-ones,1,2,4-triazine, pyridazine; and 1,3,5-triazine. When the nucleotides aredepicted using the shorthand A, G, C, T or U, each letter refers to therepresentative base and/or derivatives thereof, e.g., A includes adenineor adenine analogs, e.g., 7-deaza adenine).

Other modifications include, for example, those in U.S. Pat. No.8,835,108; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20130156849;Tavernier, G. et al., J. Control. Release, 150:238-47, 2011; Anderson,B. et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 39:9329-38, 2011; Kormann, M. et al.,Nat. Biotechnol., 29:154-7, 2011; Karikó, K. et al., Mol. Ther.,16:1833-40, 2008; Karikó, K. et al., Immunity, 23:165-75, 2005; andWarren, L. et al., Cell Stem Cell, 7:618-30, 2010; the entire contentsof each of which is incorporated herein by reference. The modRNAs can beprepared, for example, by incorporation of base-modified nucleotides,such as N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′-triphosphate, the chemical structureof which is shown below.

Described herein are UTRs derived from, for example, human genes thatare naturally abundant and well-translated in the tissue being targeted.Such UTRs may be used to determine whether altering the UTRs extendsmRNA half-life, thereby increasing protein production from mRNAs, e.g.,modRNAs.

Described herein are libraries of constructs with UTRs, which may bescreened to identify candidate UTRs that specifically increase mRNAstability in target tissues, such as liver, or cells in vitro, such asstem cells or lymphocytes.

A combinatorial library of constructs (including, for example, areporter gene) can be used to evaluate the effects of heterologous 5′and 3′ UTRs on mRNA stability (FIG. 4 ). Such a library can beconstructed, for example, by identifying mRNAs likely to be stable in aspecific tissue, e.g., liver, synthesizing UTRs of these mRNA sequences,and building combinatorial library of UTRs flanking a reporter gene,e.g., enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP) or any other suitablereporter gene.

Identification of mRNAs Stable in Liver

UTRs were selected based on liver abundance and stability measurements.As shown in FIG. 5 (inset), mRNAs for the genes Haptoglobin (HP),Haptoglobin-Related Protein (HPR), Albumin (ALB), Complement Component 3(C3 Alpha-1-antitrypsin (SERPINA1 Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin (SERPINA3),Fibrinogen Alpha Chain (FGA), and Fibrinogen Beta Chain (FGB) arenaturally highly abundant in liver as compared with their prevalence inheart.

Synthesis of UTRs

5′ and 3′ UTRs of each of HP, HPR, ALB, C3, SERPINA1, SERPINA3, FGA, andFGB genes were obtained via PCR and then sequenced by methods known inthe art. The 5′ UTRs of these genes are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 SEQ  Gene ID NO 5′ UTR Sequence HP  1GGGAGAUGCCCCACAGCACUGCCCUUCCAGAG GCAAGACCAACCAAG FGB  2GGGAGAUAUAUAUAGGAUUGAAGAUCUCUCAG UUAAGUCUACAUGAAAAGG HPR  3GGGACUGCCCUUCCAGAGGCAAGACCAACCAAG ALB  4GGGAGUAUAUUAGUGCUAAUUUCCCUCCGUUUG UCCUAGCUUUUCUCUUCUGUCAACCCCACA C3  5GGGAGAUAAAAAGCCAGCUCCAGCAGGCGCUGC UCACUCCUCCCCAUCCUCUCCCUCUGUCCCUCUGUCCCUCUGACCCUGCACUGUCCCAGCACC FGA  6 GGGAGCAAUCCUUUCUUUCAGCUGGAGUGCUCCUCAGGAGCCAGCCCCACCCUUAGAAAAG SERPINA1  7GGGAUUCAUGAAAAUCCACUACUCCAGACAGAC GGCUUUGGAAUCCACCAGCUACAUCCAGCUCCCUGAGGCAGAGUUGAGA Col1A  8 GGGGUGUCCCAUAGUGUUUCCAAACUUGGAAAGGGCGGGGGAGGGCGGGAGGAUGCGGAGGGCGGA GGUAUGCAGACAACGAGUCAGAGUUUCCCCUUGAAAGCCUCAAAAGUGUCCACGUCCUCAAAAAGA AUGGAACCAAUUUAAGAAGCCAGCCCCGUGGCCACGUCCCUUCCCCCAUUCGCUCCCUCCUCUGCG CCCCCGCAGGCUCCUCCCAGCUGUGGCUGCCCGGGCCCCCAGCCCCAGCCCUCCCAUUGGUGGAGG CCCUUUUGGAGGCACCCUAGGGCCAGGGAAACUUUUGCCGUAUAAAUAGGGCAGAUCCGGGCUUUA UUAUUUUAGCACCACGGCAGCAGGAGGUUUCGGCUAAGUUGGAGGUACUGGCCACGACUGCAUGCC CGCGCCCGCCAGGUGAUACCUCCGCCGGUGACCCAGGGGCUCUGCGACACAAGGAGUCUGCAUGUC UAAGUGCUAGAC Col6A  9GGGGCUUACUCGGCGCCCGCGCCUCGGGCCGUCG GGAGCGGAGCCUCCUCGGGACCAGGACUUCAGGGCCACAGGUGCUGCCAAG SERPINA3 10 GGGACAAUGACUCCUUUCGGUAAGUGCAGUGGAAGCUGUACACUGCCCAGGCAAAGCGUCCGGGCAGC GUAGGCGGGCGACUCAGAUCCCAGCCAGUGGACUUAGCCCCUGUUUGCUCCUCCGAUAACUGGGGUGA CCUUGGUUAAUAUUCACCAGCAGCCUCCCCCGUUGCCCCUCUGGAUCCACUGCUUAAAUACGGACGAG GACAGGGCCCUGUCUCCUCAGCUUCAGGCACCACCACUGACCUGGGACAGUGAAUCGACA Engineered 11GGGAAAUAAGAGAGAAAAGAAGAGUAAGAAGAAA UAUAAGAGCCACC

Construction of Combinatorial Library of UTRs Flanking a Reporter Gene

Eleven 5′ UTRs were used: eight from HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA,SERPINA1, and SERPINA3, (SEQ ID NOS: 1-7 and 10), which are derived fromnatural mRNAs in human liver tissue; two from collagens Col1A and Col6ASEQ ID NOS:9 and 10), which were among the most stable mRNAs in a studyperformed in a human fibroblast cell line (the only cell line in whichglobal mRNA stabilities have been tested—showing a half-life of ˜40-50hours for each (Schwanhausser, B. et al., Nature, 473:337-42, 2011); andan engineered, synthetic 5′ UTR (SEQ ID NO:11; Mandal, P. & Rossi, D.,Nat. Protoc., 8:568-82, 2013).

Twelve 3′UTRs were used: eight from HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA,SERPINA1, SERPINA3, two from collagens (Col1A and Col6A), a synthetic 3′UTR (Mandal, P. & Rossi, D., Nat. Protoc., 8:568-82, 2013), and one froma long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), which is known to be stable and shown tostabilize other messages without depending on a poly-A tail.

eGFP, a fluorescent protein, was used as a reporter, and the eGFP ORFwas used in all constructs to test 5′ and 3′ UTRs. eGFP was used becauseit can be easily measured by fluorescence read-out. Other suitablereporters, such as, for example, adiponectin and Factor VII, forexample, are known in the art and may also be used.

If any of the tested UTRs, i.e., from HP, FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA,SERPINA1 and SERPINA3 genes, for example, display greater stability andprotein synthesis than the UTRs from collagen (Col1A and Col6A) andengineered UTRs, these UTRs may be functionally linked to a gene ofinterest, such as therapeutic gene, to test stability and synthesis ofthe gene of interest in, for example, liver, as compared with that in,for example, non-liver tissues. Alternatively, stability and synthesismay be tested in any other organ, tissue or cell system, including butnot limited to stem cells or lymphocytes in vitro.

All 132 possible combinations of the eleven 5′ UTRs and twelve 3′ UTRs,plus eGFP reporter gene, were synthesized using natural nucleotides ormodRNAs (which contain non-natural nucleotides, e.g.,N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′ triphosphate).

To test which UTRs perform best, eGFP mRNAs and eGFP modRNAs may besynthesized with variable UTR sequences as a pool, mRNAs or modRNAstransfected individually into primary hepatocytes, and eGFP productionassessed at time points after transfection.

Generation of Plasmid DNA

Plasmids containing the sequences for the UTR library were synthesizedand cloned into an in vitro transcription plasmid (DNA018). All 23 UTRs(eleven 5′ UTRs and twelve 3′ UTRs) and the reporter ORF weresynthesized and combinatorially cloned into DNA018. Synthesis wasperformed using Gibson cloning, and constructs were inserted into theplasmid template using Bsal, thus, the components were free of Bsalcloning sites.

Generation of In Vitro Translated RNAs

Plasmids were pooled by 3′ UTR, generating 12 pools, each containing 11plasmids with identical 3′ UTRs and differing 5′ UTRs. Each pool wasthen linearized with EcoRI, producing single-stranded template. mRNAsand modRNAs were transcribed from each pool with T7 polymerase, usingall natural nucleotides or nucleotides containingN¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′ triphosphate, respectively. mRNAs and modRNAswere capped during the in vitro transcription reaction using theanti-reverse cap analogue (ARCA). In vitro translated RNAs were thenpurified using methods known in the art.

The method of modRNA generation may result in several nucleotides beingadded to each end of the mRNA. At the 5′ end of each message, there maybe found GGG. This is imposed by the T7 promoter being used fortranscription. At the 3′ end of each message, there may be found GAAUUfollowing the poly-A tail. This may exist because EcoRI is used fortemplate linearization.

Testing Protein Synthesis

modRNAs were generated from the construct of interest through in vitrotranscription using just a single plasmid as template, and eGFPsynthesis was measured following transfection in primary hepatocytes,using a fluorescence read-out.

Example

FIG. 6 shows that modRNAs having hepatocyte 5′ UTRs derived from HP,FGB, HPR, ALB, C3, FGA, SERPINA1 and SERPINA3 genes produced more eGFPthan synthetic and non-hepatic (Col1A and Col6A) UTRs in primaryhepatocytes after transfection. These results suggest that hepatocyte 5′UTRs are liver-specific for RNA stability, protein synthesis, or both.All messages were transfected in triplicate in primary hepatocytes.Standard deviation is ˜30% on all samples.

On the other hand, mRNAs containing only natural nucleotides producedless eGFP than modRNAs, for all constructs tested. As shown in FIG. 7 ,eGFP synthesis was reduced for all mRNAs containing only naturalnucleotides, as compared with modRNAs (compare with FIG. 6 ). Theseresults suggest that modified nucleotides increase mRNA stability and/orprotein synthesis. Importantly, the liver-specific effect of hepatocyte5′ UTRs persists because mRNAs containing only natural nucleotides andhaving hepatocyte 5′ UTRs still out-performed those having synthetic andnon-hepatic (Col1A and Col6A) UTRs. All messages were transfected intriplicate in primary hepatocytes. Standard deviation is ˜30% on allsamples.

Thus, in addition to rendering modRNAs nonimmunogenic, the presentdisclosure shows the surprising results that the modified nucleosidepseudouridine can also increase RNA stability and/or protein synthesis.

The 5′ and 3′ UTRs may be functionally linked to an ORF, which ORF maybe a therapeutic gene encoding protein for preventing or treating liverconditions such as, for example, acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis,liver cirrhosis, cirrhosis, fatty liver, or liver cancer, and the like.Additional liver diseases or conditions that can be treated or preventedby the compositions and methods described herein include, for example,any liver-associated enzyme deficiency such as, for example, glycogenstorage disease, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 1(PFIC1), progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 2 (PFIC2),progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 3 (PFIC3),adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency (ASLD), citrullinemia, arginase-1deficiency, primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1), ornithinetranscarbamylase deficiency (OTCD), homocystinuria, pheylketonuria,glycogen storage disease type IV (GSDIV), galactose-1-phosphateuridylyltransferase deficiency (galactosemia, e.g., type I (GALTI), typeII (GALTII) or type 3 (GALTIII)), long chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoAdehydrogenase deficiency (LCHADD), 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylasedeficiency (MCCC1 deficiency), methylmalonic aciduria (MMA), MMA andhomocystinuria type C (MMACHC), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura(TTP), hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinuria syndrome(HHH), complement component 2 deficiency (C2D), F2, protein S deficiency(caused by allelic variants of PROS1), alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency(A1AT), glutaric academia 1 (GA-1), glutaric academia 2 (GA-2),cystinosis (CTNS), tyrosinemia, tyrosinemia type 3 (cause by allelicvariants of HPD), D-bifunctional protein deficiency (DBP),Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (FBS), pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), primarybiliary cirrhosis, Pompe disease, glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD),proprionic acidemia (PA) and Crigler-Najjar syndrome (CN, e.g., CN1).Protein expressed from mRNAs comprising one or more heterologous UTRscan be provided for treating liver condition (hepatitis C) such asinterferon alpha, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, vascularadhesion protein 1, hepatocyte growth factor, and the like may beprovided.

Molecular targets for replacement therapies that can includeheterologous UTRs as described herein, include, for example, geneproducts from the group consisting of: interferon alpha, TNF-relatedapoptosis-inducing ligand, vascular adhesion protein 1, hepatocytegrowth factor, G6PC, ABCB11, ABCB4, ASL1, ASS, Arg1, AGXT, OTC, CBS,PAH, GBE, GALE, HADH, MCCC1, MMA, ADAMTS13, SLC25A15, C2, F2, PROS1,SERPINA1, GALT1, ETFA, GCDH, CTNS, FAH, TAT, HPD, HSD17b4, SLC2A2, GALC,ABCC6, AHSG, PDC-E2, GAA, ATP8B1, MMACHC, GK, PCCA, PCCB and UGT1A1.

In addition to liver, the present disclosure may be applied to othertissues and cells in which increased stability and/or translationefficiency of therapeutic mRNAs is desired. For example, to engineerlymphocytic cells or stem cells for therapeutic purposes, stability oftherapeutic mRNAs after delivery may be increased by generating mRNAs,including, for example, modRNAs, having UTRs, derived from mRNAs thatare naturally abundant in lymphocytic cells or stem cells, linked to oneor more therapeutic ORFs.

The present disclosure differs from previous mRNA therapy efforts, whichhave relied on standard UTR sequences that are not tissue-specific, andgive consistent but lower levels of protein expression. Thus, thepresent disclosure provides a significant advantage over the art byenabling mRNA therapies for treatment of chronic conditions that requiresustained, high-level protein synthesis.

All references cited in this specification are herein incorporated byreference as though each reference was specifically and individuallyindicated to be incorporated by reference. The citation of any referenceis for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not beconstrued as an admission that the present disclosure is not entitled toantedate such reference by virtue of prior disclosure. It will beunderstood that each of the elements described above, or two or moretogether may also find a useful application in other types of methodsdiffering from the type described above. Without further analysis, theforegoing will so fully reveal the gist of the present disclosure thatothers can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt it for variousapplications without omitting features that, from the standpoint ofprior art, fairly constitute essential characteristics of the generic orspecific aspects of this disclosure set forth in the appended claims.The foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only; thescope of the present disclosure is to be limited only by the followingclaims.

1.-31. (canceled)
 32. A messenger RNA (mRNA) comprising an open readingframe (ORF) encoding protein, wherein the ORF is flanked by aheterologous 5′ untranslated region (UTR) and/or a heterologous 3′ UTR,wherein the 5′ UTR and/or the 3′ UTR are derived from a gene selectedfrom the group consisting of Haptoglobin (HP), Haptoglobin-RelatedProtein (HPR), Complement Component 3 (C3), Alpha-1-antitrypsin(SERPINA1), Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin (SERPINA3), Fibrinogen Alpha Chain(FGA), and Fibrinogen Beta Chain (FGB).
 33. The mRNA of claim 32,wherein the mRNA comprises at least one modified or non-naturallyoccurring nucleotide.
 34. The mRNA of claim 33, wherein the at least onemodified or non-naturally occurring nucleotide comprises at least onebackbone modification, sugar modification or base modification.
 35. ThemRNA of claim 34, wherein the at least one modified or non-naturallyoccurring nucleotide comprises at least one base modification.
 36. ThemRNA of claim 35, wherein the at least one base modification is selectedfrom the group consisting of 2-amino-6-chloropurine riboside 5′triphosphate, 2-aminoadenosine 5′ triphosphate, 2-thiocytidine 5′triphosphate, 2-thiouridine 5′ triphosphate, 4-thiouridine 5′triphosphate, 5-aminoallylcytidine 5′ triphosphate, 5-aminoallyluridine5′ triphosphate, 5-bromocytidine 5′ triphosphate, 5-bromouridine 5′triphosphate, 5-iodocytidine 5′ triphosphate, 5-iodouridine 5′triphosphate, 5-methylcytidine 5′ triphosphate, 5-methyluridine 5′triphosphate, 6-azacytidine 5′ triphosphate, 6-azauridine 5′triphosphate, 6-chloropurine riboside 5′-triphosphate, 7-deazaadenosine5′ triphosphate, 7-deazaguanosine 5′ triphosphate, 8-azaadenosine 5′triphosphate, 8-azidoadenosine 5′ triphosphate, benzimidazole riboside5′ triphosphate, N¹-methyladenosine 5′ triphosphate, N¹-methylguanosine5′ triphosphate, N⁶-methyladenosine 5′ triphosphate, O⁶-methylguanosine5′ triphosphate, N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′ triphosphate, puromycin5′-triphosphate, and xanthosine 5′ triphosphate.
 37. The mRNA of claim36, wherein the at least one modified or non-naturally occurringnucleotide is N¹-methyl-pseudouridine 5′ triphosphate.
 38. The mRNA ofclaim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises a heterologous 5′ UTR derived froma gene selected from the group consisting of HP, FGB, HPR, C3, FGA,SERPINA1, and SERPINA3.
 39. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the 5′ UTRcomprises a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting ofSEQ ID NOS:1-3, 5-7, and
 10. 40. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the ORFis a therapeutic gene.
 41. The mRNA of claim 40, wherein the therapeuticgene is selected from the group consisting of interferon alpha, TNFrelated apoptosis-inducing ligand, vascular adhesion protein 1,hepatocyte growth factor, G6PC, ABCB11, ABCB4, ASL1, ASS, Arg1, AGXT,OTC, CBS, PAH, GBE, GALE, HADH, MCCC1, MMA, ADAMTS13, SLC25A15, C2, F2,PROS1, SERPINA1, GALT1, ETFA, GCDH, CTNS, FAH, TAT, HPD, HSD17b4,SLC2A2, GALC, ABCC6, AHSG, PDC-E2, GAA, ATP8B1, MMACHC, GK, PCCA, PCCB,and UGT1A1.
 42. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises aheterologous 5′ UTR derived from the HP gene.
 43. The mRNA of claim 32,wherein the mRNA comprises a heterologous 5′ UTR derived from the FGBgene.
 44. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises aheterologous 5′ UTR derived from the HPR gene.
 45. The mRNA of claim 32,wherein the mRNA comprises a heterologous 5′ UTR derived from the C3gene.
 46. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises aheterologous 5′ UTR derived from the FGA gene.
 47. The mRNA of claim 32,wherein the mRNA comprises a heterologous 5′ UTR derived from theSERPINA1 gene.
 48. The mRNA of claim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises aheterologous 5′ UTR derived from the SERPINA3 gene.
 49. The mRNA ofclaim 32, wherein the mRNA comprises a heterologous 5′ UTR comprisingthe nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2.